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However skin care kiehls discount flexresan 20mg without prescription, where individual ownership prevails or traditional management and access rules are operative skin care facts order discount flexresan line, their use is often carefully planned skin care questionnaire template discount flexresan 20 mg visa, adjusting grazing pressure seasonally skin care 35 year old buy discount flexresan 40mg line, and mixing different livestock classes. In addition, techniques such as controlled burning and bush removal are practices that can Percentageof Remaining Converted in to grasslands croplands 9. Three types of land tenure are generally recognized, namely, private (an individual or a company), communal (a local community) and public (the state). Access rights can overlap with property rights, sometime resulting in a complex set of rules controlling the use of resources. Such discrepancies between access rules and the multiplicity of institutions responsible for their application often lead to conflicts among stakeholders claiming access to pastureland. Lease Customary accessrights1 0 to ++ issues may arise from the conflicting overlap between customary access right and recent land titling policies. The table below provides an overview of these rules and of the relative level of security they provide for the livestock keeper accessing the land resource. Access to water often adds another layer of access rights: in the dry lands, water plays a critical role as location of water resources are determinant to the use of pastures. Consequently, water rights are key to the actual access to arid and semi-arid pastureland. Holding no formal rights over land, pastoralists often do not get rights over water thereby suffering from a double disadvantage (Hodgson, 2004). Note: Level of stability in the access to the resource, from very high (+++) to very low (0) 1 Customary access rights can take numerous forms. The low management level of extensive pasture is a major reason why such grasslands can provide a high level of environmental services such as biodiversity conservation. In particular, investments in practices and infrastructures improving pasture productivity may only be implemented if there is a sufficiently high probability to realize economic returns on the mid to long term. More recently, the existence of clear usage rights has shown to be indispensable to the attribution and remuneration of environmental services. In contrast, the majority of pasture land is titled under private ownership in Latin America and in the United States. Indeed, a survey on the United States shows that 63 percent of pastures are privately owned, while 25 percent belong to the Federal State and the rest to states and local communities (see Table 2. Finally, in Europe, pasture located in fertile low lands are generally privately owned, while marginal areas such as mountain rangelands and wetlands are usually public or communal, with traditional access rights. Extensive pasture in marginal areas are defined here as having a net primary productivity of less than 1 200 grams of carbon per m2/yr (Map 4, Annex 1; Table 4, Annex 2). This is the largest category by area (60 percent of all pastures), and is located mostly in dry lands and cold lands. This category is particularly dominant in developed countries, where it represents almost 80 percent of grasslands, while in developing countries it accounts for just under 50 percent of pastures. The contrast can be explained by differences in the opportunity cost of land: in developed countries, areas with good agro-ecological potential are generally used in more intensive forms than pasture. They conclude that the land frontier for further pasture expansion into marginal areas is exhausted. Extensive pasture in high potential areas is defined as those with a net primary productivity of more than 1 200 g of carbon per m2/y (Map 4, Annex 1; Table 4, Annex 2). Pastures in this category are predominantly found in tropical humid and subhumid climates, as well as in parts of Western Europe and the United States. Because biomass production is steady or seasonal, such pastures are predominantly fenced in and grazed throughout the year. Intensive cultivated pasture production is found where climatic, economic and institutional conditions are favourable, and land is scarce. The most intensive pastures are found in southern England, Belgium, the Netherlands and parts of France and Germany. Forage systems are high-yield oriented, with regular use of high levels of mineral fertilizers combined with regular manure applications and mechanization. These intensively used pastures are a main source of nutrient loading and nitrate pollution in those countries. Cultivated grasslands are usually species-poor and are typically dominated by Lolium species (European Commission, 2004). Intensive forage production in some cases supplies processing industries, such as alfalfa dehydration and hay compaction.
In developing countries skin care pakistan buy 40 mg flexresan, cattle and buffaloes still provide animal draught for field operations skin care nz generic 30mg flexresan, and in some areas acne in early pregnancy order 40 mg flexresan free shipping, animal traction is on the increase (parts of sub-Saharan Africa) so that animals substitute for potential fossil fuel use scin care 40mg flexresan overnight delivery. Livestock also use crop-residues some of which would otherwise be burned, thus making net contributions to environmental objectives. However, cattle in extensive livestock production in developing countries are often only of marginal productivity. The dairy sector is much better connected to land than is the case for other forms of marketoriented production. There is a risk of soil and water contamination by large-scale dairy operations, as witnessed by "dairy colonies" in South Asia, and by industrial-type operations in North America and increasingly also in China. Therefore, dairy is the livestock commodity where small-scale or familybased operations can resist market pressures for longer than is the case for poultry or pork. At both ends of the intensity 274 spectrum there is considerable environmental damage. On the extensive side, cattle are instrumental in degradation of vast grassland areas and are a contributing factor to deforestation (pasture conversion), and the resulting carbon emissions, biodiversity losses and negative impacts on water flows and quality. On the intensive side, feedlots are often vastly beyond the capacity of surrounding land to absorb nutrients. While in the feedlot stage the conversion of concentrate feed into beef is far less efficient than into poultry or pork, and therefore beef has significantly higher resource requirements per unit than pork or poultry. Except for small pockets with feed lots in Near East and North America, intensive production based on feed concentrate barely exists. Because of their adaptive grazing, sheep and goats have extended their reach further into arid, steep and otherwise marginal territory than cattle. Under overstocked conditions, they are particularly damaging to the environment, through degradation of vegetative cover and soil. However, the low economic value of sheep and goat production means that it does not usually lead directly to mechanized large scale deforestation, as is the case for cattle ranching in Brazil. However, extensive systems are incapable of meeting the surging urban demand in many developing countries, not only in terms of volume but also in sanitary and other quality standards. The ensuing shift towards larger-scale grain-based industrial systems has been associated with geographic concentration, to such extents that land/livestock balances have become very unfavourable, leading to nutrient overload of soils and water pollution. Furthermore, most industrial pig production in the tropics and sub-tropics uses waste-flushing systems involving large amounts of water. This becomes the main polluting agent, exacerbating negative environmental impact. Although industrial poultry production is entirely based on feed grains and other high value feed material, it is the most efficient form of production of food of animal origin (with the exception of some forms of aquaculture), and has the lowest land requirements per unit of output. Poultry manure is of high nutrient content, relatively easy to manage and widely used as fertilizer and sometimes as feed. Other than for feedcrop production, the environmental damage, though perhaps locally important, is of a much lower scale than for the other species. In conclusion, livestock-environment interactions are often diffuse and indirect; and damage occurs at both the high and low end of the intensity spectrum, but is probably highest for beef and lowest for poultry. In this section we put forward perspectives as to how this can be achieved, compared to a backdrop of "business as usual. Although the annual growth rate will be somewhat slower than in recent decades, the growth in absolute volume will be vast. Among the meat products, poultry will be the commodity of choice for reasons of acceptance across cultures and technical efficiency in relation to feed concentrates. Business as usual leads to mounting problems In the absence of major corrective measures, the environmental impact of livestock production will worsen dramatically. Viewed very simply, if production doubles, without any reduction in environmental measures per unit of production, then environmental damage will double. The future of the livestock-environment interface will be shaped by how we resolve the balance of two competing demands: for animal food products on the one hand and for environmental services on the other. The pressure on crop agriculture to expand and intensify will remain high; and so the associated environmental impacts, in terms of water depletion, climate change and biodiversity loss, will grow.
The Panic Attacks are not better accounted for by another mental disorder acne quotes discount flexresan 5 mg with amex, such as Social Phobia skin care untuk kulit berminyak generic flexresan 20mg otc. Source: Reprinted with permission from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders skin care jobs purchase cheap flexresan on line, Text Revision skin care untuk kulit sensitif buy genuine flexresan online, Fourth Edition, (Copyright 2000) American Psychiatric Association. The two Axis I disorders mostly commonly associated with panic disorder are depression (up to 65% of cases) and substance abuse (up to 30% of cases) (Biederman et al. Panic attacks that are part of panic disorder tend not to have such an obvious situational trigger. Panic disorder, as well as ataque de nervios and other anxiety disorders, is diagnosed in at least twice as often in women as in men (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). A cultural explanation for this gender difference is that men may be less likely to report symptoms of anxiety or panic because they perceive them as inconsistent with how men are "supposed" to behave in their culture (Ginsburg & Silverman, 2000). In short, panic disorder has a core of common symptoms across the world, centering on frequent, unexpected panic attacks and fear of further attacks, but culture does affect the specifics. The thing she failed to understand was the predicament I would be placing myself in if I did go out. Agoraphobia (which literally means "fear of the marketplace") refers to the persistent avoidance of situations that might trigger panic symptoms or from which escape would be difficult. Moreover, many patients with agoraphobia may avoid places in which it would be embarrassing or hard to obtain help in case of a panic attack. For these reasons, tunnels, bridges, crowded theaters, and highways are typically avoided or entered with difficulty by people with agoraphobia. These people avoid situations where they fear they might lose control of themselves for some other reason (such as incontinence) or where they fear they may experience symptoms that are less severe or numerous than the criteria for a panic attack (listed in Table 7. For instance, they might avoid types of situations that have, in the past, triggered palpatations and nausea (but experience less than the minimum of four symptoms necessary for a panic attack). However, people who only avoid particular kinds of stimuli (only bridges or only parties) are not diagnosed with agoraphobia, which is a more general pattern of avoiding many kinds of environments or situations. Anxiety about being in places or situations from which escape might be difficult (or embarrassing) or in which help may not be available in the event of having an unexpected or situationally predisposed panic attack or panic-like symptoms. Agoraphobic fears typically involve characteristic clusters of situations that include being outside the home alone; being in a crowd or standing in a line; being on a bridge; and traveling in a bus, train, or automobile. Note: Consider the diagnosis of Specific Phobia [discussed later in this chapter] if the avoidance is limited to one or only a few specific situations, or Social Phobia [discussed later in this chapter] if the avoidance is limited to social situations. The anxiety or phobic avoidance is not better accounted for by another mental disorder, such as Social Phobia. Agoraphobia the persistent avoidance of situations that might trigger panic symptoms or from which escape would be difficult. Patients who meet the criteria for agoraphobia are diagnosed with either panic disorder with agoraphobia or agoraphobia without history of panic disorder, depending on the presence or absence of panic disorder. Anxiety Disorders 2 6 7 diagnosed with either panic disorder with agoraphobia (if he or she also has panic disorder) or agoraphobia without history of panic disorder (if he or she had never had panic disorder). Between one third and one half of those with panic disorder also have agoraphobia. Some researchers suggest that agoraphobia-with no reference to panic disorder-should be a disorder in future diagnostic manuals (Bienvenu et al. But three weeks after I first admitted it in therapy, I crossed the street eight times on my own. My daughter Nadeen was always by my side on those rare occasions when I ventured outside, forced to leave my home when I needed medical attention. In the past my fear kept me at home with all sorts of physical pains and ailments, as horrific as the pain was, the pain of facing the outside world was greater. When I had two abscessed teeth and my jaw was swollen to twice its normal size I was in such excruciating pain that I had to go to the dentist.
Rather skin care 77054 cheap flexresan 10 mg online, it reached a consensus on the most important issues now facing the forensic science community and medical examiner system and agreed on 13 specific recommendations to address these issues acne vulgaris description cheap 30mg flexresan overnight delivery. Challenges Facing the Forensic Science Community For decades acne 8 days before period buy 20 mg flexresan amex, the forensic science disciplines have produced valuable evidence that has contributed to the successful prosecution and conviction of criminals as well as to the exoneration of innocent people skin care 77054 buy flexresan online now. Many crimes that may have gone unsolved are now being solved because forensic science is helping to identify the perpetrators. Those advances, however, also have revealed that, in some cases, substantive information and testimony based on faulty forensic science analyses may have contributed to wrongful convictions of innocent people. This fact has demonstrated the potential danger of giving undue weight to evidence and testimony derived from imperfect testing and analysis. Moreover, imprecise or exaggerated expert testimony has sometimes contributed to the admission of erroneous or misleading evidence. Further advances in the forensic science disciplines will serve three important purposes. First, further improvements will assist law enforcement officials in the course of their investigations to identify perpetrators with higher reliability. Second, further improvements in forensic science practices this document is a research report submitted to the U. Numerous professionals in the forensic science community and the medical examiner system have worked for years to achieve excellence in their fields, aiming to follow high ethical norms, develop sound professional standards, ensure accurate results in their practices, and improve the processes by which accuracy is determined. Although the work of these dedicated professionals has resulted in significant progress in the forensic science disciplines in recent decades, major challenges still face the forensic science community. It is therefore unsurprising that Congress instructed this committee to , among other things, "assess the present and future resource needs of the forensic science community," "make recommendations for maximizing the use of forensic technologies and techniques," "make recommendations for programs that will increase the number of qualified forensic scientists and medical examiners," and "disseminate best practices and guidelines concerning the collection and analysis of forensic evidence to help ensure quality and consistency in the use of forensic technologies and techniques. The best professionals in the forensic science disciplines invariably are hindered in their work because these and other problems persist. In so doing, the committee was able to better comprehend some of the major problems facing the forensic science community and the medical examiner system. This is true with respect to funding, access to analytical instrumentation, the availability of skilled and well-trained personnel, certification, accreditation, and 5 In this report, the "forensic science community," broadly speaking, is meant to include forensic pathology and medicolegal death investigation, which is sometimes referred to as "the medical examiner system" or "the medicolegal death investigation system. As a result, it is not easy to generalize about current practices within the forensic science community. Although the vast majority of criminal law enforcement is handled by state and local jurisdictions, these entities often are sorely lacking in the resources (money, staff, training, and equipment) necessary to promote and maintain strong forensic science laboratory systems. It is also noteworthy that the resources, the extent of services, and the amount of expertise that medical examiners and forensic pathologists can provide vary widely in different jurisdictions. As a result, the depth, reliability, and overall quality of substantive information arising from the forensic examination of evidence available to the legal system vary substantially across the country. Lack of Mandatory Standardization, Certification, and Accreditation the fragmentation problem is compounded because operational principles and procedures for many forensic science disciplines are not standardized or embraced, either between or within jurisdictions. There is no uniformity in the certification of forensic practitioners, or in the accreditation of crime laboratories. Indeed, most jurisdictions do not require forensic practitioners to be certified, and most forensic science disciplines have no mandatory certification programs. Moreover, accreditation of crime laboratories is not required in most jurisdictions. Often there are no standard protocols governing forensic practice in a given discipline. In short, the quality of forensic practice in most disciplines varies greatly because of the absence of adequate training and continuing education, rigorous mandatory certification and accreditation programs, adherence to robust performance standards, and effective oversight. The Broad Range of Forensic Science Disciplines the term "forensic science" encompasses a broad range of forensic disciplines, each with its own set of technologies and practices. In other words, there is wide variability across forensic science disciplines with regard to 6 See. The "forensic science community," in turn, consists of a host of practitioners, including scientists (some with advanced degrees) in the fields of chemistry, biochemistry, biology, and medicine; laboratory technicians; crime scene investigators; and law enforcement officers. There are very important differences, however, between forensic laboratory work and crime scene investigations. There are also sharp distinctions between forensic practitioners who have been trained in chemistry, biochemistry, biology, and medicine (and who bring these disciplines to bear in their work) and technicians who lend support to forensic science enterprises. The committee decided early in its work that it would not be feasible to develop a detailed evaluation of each discipline in terms of its scientific underpinning, level of development, and ability to provide evidence to address the major types of questions raised in criminal prosecutions and civil litigation.
To minimize the possibility of confounds acne 3 step buy 5 mg flexresan free shipping, the researcher should try to ensure that the experimental manipulation alters only the independent variables (and does not inadvertently affect other variables acne infection cheap flexresan american express, such as the order in which the movies are presented) and that only those changes in the independent variables affect the dependent variable skin care routine for dry skin cheap flexresan 5 mg with mastercard. It is not always possible to ensure that this is the case acne zap cheap 30 mg flexresan free shipping, however, and thus the experimenter must examine every reasonable hypothesis that might explain the effect. Control Groups and Conditions A common method for examining the possible effects of confounds in an experiment is to create a control group. The experimental group (or groups) and the control group are treated identically throughout the experiment, except that the independent variable is not manipulated for the control group. For example, say that your hypothesis was confirmed; the group of participants who had suffered an early loss and experienced helplessness did in fact have a more negative mood after watching a movie with the theme of loss. To rule out this possibility, you would control for this factor by testing another group of these people, showing them a depressing movie that has nothing to do with loss. To use a control group appropriately, it must be as similar as possible to the experimental group. If the members of a control group differ significantly from members of the experimental group in terms of age, education, cultural background, temperament, or any other characteristic, one or more confounding variables has been introduced. Such a confound would cloud the interpretation of the results, because a difference in the dependent variable could be attributed to the confound instead of to the relation you intended to test. Perhaps the control group responded less strongly to the depressing movie simply because most of the participants in that group happened to be temperamentally placid. You can imagine how hard it can be to match a control group perfectly to an experimental group. This difficulty often leads researchers to match the experimental group to the most similar possible control group: the experimental group itself! Sometimes, rather than having two separate groups that are treated differently, researchers have all participants take part in different conditions, or circumstances, which correspond to the different ways that experimental and control groups would be treated in a study that had both types of groups. For example, the same people could watch a movie about loss and at a different time watch a movie that was depressing but not about loss. However, when the same group of people take part in more than one condition, you need to avoid a confounding that might be introduced by the order of presentation of the conditions. To avoid this, you would counterbalance the order of exposure to each condition: Half of the participants would watch the "loss" film first, and the other half would watch the "non-loss/depressing" film first. This procedure would ensure that each condition occurred equally often in each place in the order of presentation. Bias the way a study is set up can affect the assignment of participants into groups or influence the outcome of the experiment. For instance, suppose that you have two groups: members of one group see a "loss" film and members of the other see a "non-loss/depressing" film. When you assign participants to the groups, you Researching Abnormality 1 5 9 inadvertently assign the people who smile at you to the "non-loss" group. Whether or not it is conscious (intentional) or unconscious (unintentional), a tendency or influence that distorts data-which ends up producing a confound-is called bias. This is why researchers place participants in groups using random assignment, assigning participants to each group by a procedure that relies on chance. Even if you randomly assign participants to groups or have them take part in both conditions, other biases can interfere. Perhaps all your participants come from the same city, which recently experienced a devastating hurricane (and so the theme of loss is particularly salient for all participants). Sampling bias occurs when the participants are not drawn randomly from the relevant population. This brings us to an important distinction: the population is the complete set of possible participants. Many of the same points also apply to the items that are selected to be used as stimuli in the study. For example, you might select a very powerful "loss" film and a limp "depressing" film-or vice versa. In this case, an irrelevant characteristic of the items-how powerful they are-might determine the results. Just as you need to be careful in sampling and assigning participants to groups, you need to be careful in selecting the items (such as the specific items in a questionnaire), ensuring that they are in fact representative of the types of items to which you want to generalize. Suppose you want to know what the prevalence is in the United States of the type of depression that results from seasonal changes in the amount of daylight (sometimes referred to as seasonal affective disorder).
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