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The exact method of obtaining a self-report measure will depend to a large degree on the topic being investigated gastritis diet in dogs order lansoprazole 15mg line. Rating Scales Numerical Scales Numerical scales are a group of rating scales that rely on a sequence of numbers for the response categories gastritis diet 8 month order generic lansoprazole on line. A dichotomous response such as "yes-no" implies that numerical values of I and 0 can be assigned to the answers gastritis diet x1 generic 30mg lansoprazole visa. For example gastritis diet 0 cd discount lansoprazole online amex, you might ask someone to respond to the following 5-point scale: Elementary school teachers should be required to pass a comprehensive examination every five years to retain their teaching credential. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree this type of rating scale is called a step scale and can use words, numbers, phrases, or even drawings for each step on the scale. Young children may not be able to comprehend many items and scales devised for adults. Simple drawings are often used in step scales for young children because they cannot understand verbal and numerical labels. A national survey of reading in first- through sixth-grade children used a pictorial rating scale of Garfield cartoon characters (McKenna, Kear, & Ellsworth, 1995). Another pictorial scale that is used frequently for self-report measures in children is a scale of smiling and frowning faces like this one: Point to the face that shows how you feel about the toy. Other rating scales do not label all the response alternatives but only the end or anchor points. Thus, a participant could be asked to indicate liking for someone on the following scale, which has seven possible responses: How much do you like this person? Dislike very much Like very much Graphic Rating Scales A graphic rating scale is a second type of scale. A graphic rating scale requires the survey respondent to place a check mark along a continuous line that is anchored at each end with bipolar descriptive terms such as "favorable" and "unfavorable. The process can be simplified by using a 100-mm line; scores would then range from 0 to 100. For example, students might be asked to evaluate a movie using the following graphic rating scales: How would you rate the movie you just saw? Not very enjoyable Not very violent Not very realistic Very enjoyable Very violent Very realistic Comparative Rating Scales A comparative rating scale provides a standard of comparison for the respondent so that all ratings are made against some standard comparison. For example, many graduate school applications require a reference from one of your college professors. Commonly asked questions include evaluating the applicant on characteristics such as academic ability, professional commitment, emotional maturity, and potential for professional success. Respondents rate any concept or person on a series of bipolar adjectives with 7-point scales anchored at either end by adjectives such as good-bad, or strongweak. The semantic differential asks the respondent to choose between the two opposite terms. Likert Scales With a Likert scale (Likert, 1932) the participant responds to a set of statements on a topic. Typical Likert scales use five categories on a scale that varies from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree. To do this, we first need to generate a set of items about driving; then ask a sample of teenagers to agree or disagree with each statement. Teenage drivers are more careful when they are alone in the car than when they have friends in the car. Interviewer bias refers to all the biases that can arise from the fact that the interviewer is a unique human being interacting with another human. This is particularly important when working with children, who are easily influenced by adults. Or, if there are several interviewers, each could possess different characteristics. Such expectations could bias their interpretations of responses or lead them to probe further for an answer from certain respondents but not others-for example, when questioning Whites but not people from other groups, or when testing boys but not girls. Careful screening and training of interviewers helps to limit such biases, but they remain a possibility in interview research. A response set is a tendency to respond to all questions from a particular perspective rather than to provide answers that are directly related to the questions.
How stories make sense of personal experiences: Motives that shape autobiographical narratives gastritis diet 1000 order generic lansoprazole pills. The impact of item phrasing on the validity of attitude scales for elementary school children gastritis guidelines buy generic lansoprazole. Effects of day care on the development of cognitive abilities in 8-year-olds: A longitudinal study gastritis juicing order 15 mg lansoprazole visa. Parental religiosity gastritis burping buy cheap lansoprazole online, family processes, and youth competence in rural, two-parent Mrican American families. Forbidden fruit versus tainted fruit: Effects of warning labels on attraction to television violence. Risk factors for falls in a community-based prospective study of people 70 years and older. Motivation and mathematics achievement: A comparative study of Asian-American, Caucasian American and East Asian high school students. Qualitative methodology in the evaluation of early childhood bilingual curriculum models. Attachment and indiscriminant friendliness in Romanian adoptees three years post-adoption. Dozier (Chair), the effects ofearly deprivation: Investigations of a continuum of caregiving experiences. Attachment security and indiscriminately friendly behavior in children adopted from Romanian orphanages. Guidelines for avoiding sexism in psychological research: A report of the Ad Hoc Committee on Nonsexist Research. Family, school, and behavioral antecedents to early adolescent involvement with antisocial peers. Coping with disruptions in early caregiving: Factors affecting attachment strategies among foster infants. Dozier (Chair), the effects ofearly deprivation: Investigations of a continuum ofcaregiving experiences. Thejasper Project: Lessons in curriculum, instruction, assessment, and professional development. Multiple sources of data on social behavior and social status in the school: A cross-age comparison. The science of prevention: A conceptual framework and some directions for a national research program. Economic stress, coercive family process, and developmental problems of adolescents. A peek behind the fence: Naturalistic observations of aggressive children with remote audiovisual recording. Parent-child behavior in the Great Depression: Life course and intergenerational influences. Playground behaviors of school-age children in relation to nutrition, schooling, and family characteristics. The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance: Does it work with low-income urban children? Lesbians choosing motherhood: A comparative study of lesbian and heterrsexual parents and their children. Perceptions and attitudes of Black students toward school, achievement, and other educational variables. The shift in power with age: Changes in perception of the power of women and men over the life cycle. Time use and mathematics achievement among American, Chinese, and Japanese high school students. A relatively painless method of introduction to the psychological literature search. The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children. Ameliorating early reading failure by integrating the teaching of reading and phonological skills: the phonological linkage hypothesis. A lO-year longitudinal study of body weight, dieting, and eating disorder symptoms.
Studies of twins yield similar findings: identical twins are twice as likely to weigh the same as fraternal twins- even when reared apart gastritis diet ùë cheap lansoprazole 30mg visa. In other words gastritis diet vegan discount lansoprazole, even if genes do not cause obesity gastritis erosive diet buy 30mg lansoprazole free shipping, genetic factors interact with the food intake and activity patterns that lead to it and the metabolic pathways that maintain it gastritis symptoms with back pain generic 15mg lansoprazole mastercard. Given an extra 1000 kcalories a day for 100 days, some pairs of identical twins gain less than 10 pounds while others gain up to 30 pounds. Within each pair, the amounts of weight gained, percentages of body fat, and locations of fat deposits are similar. Similarly, some people lose more weight than others following comparable exercise routines. Researchers have been examining several genes in search of answers to obesity questions. As the section on protein synthesis in Chapter 6 described, each cell expresses only the genes for the proteins it needs, and each protein performs a unique function. The following paragraphs describe some recent research involving proteins that might help explain appetite control, energy regulation, and obesity development. Research suggests that leptin from adipose tissue signals sufficient energy stores and promotes a negative energy balance by suppressing appetite and increasing energy expenditure. Changes in energy expenditure primarily reflect changes in basal metabolism but may also include changes in physical activity patterns. Leptin is also released from stomach cells in response to the presence of food, suggesting a role for both short-term and long-term satiety regulation. Although extremely rare, a genetic deficiency of leptin has been identified in human beings as well. An error in the gene that codes for leptin has been discovered in a few extremely obese children with barely detectable blood levels of leptin. Without leptin, the children have little appetite control; they are constantly hungry and eat considerably more than their siblings or peers. In fact, obese people generally have high leptin levels, and weight gain increases leptin concentrations. Researchers speculate that in obesity, leptin rises in an effort to overcome an insensitivity or resistance to leptin. They both became obese, but the one on the right received daily injections of leptin, which suppressed food intake and increased energy expenditure, resulting in weight loss. With leptin treatment, this mouse lost Without leptin, this mouse weighs a significant amount of weight but almost three times as much as a still weighs almost one and a half normal mouse. Some researchers have reexamined the evidence on leptin from another point of view-one of undernutrition. Clearly, leptin plays a major role in energy regulation, but additional research is needed to clarify its actions when intake is either excessive or deficient. In addition to its involvement in energy regulation, leptin plays several other roles in the body. Blood levels of ghrelin typically rise before and fall after a meal in proportion to the kcalories ingested-reflecting the hunger and satiety that precede and follow eating. Weight loss is more successful following gastric bypass surgery, in part because ghrelin levels are abnormally low. In fact, it was first recognized for its participation in growth hormone activity. These proteins may influence the storing or expending of energy with different efficiencies or in different types of fat. Brown fat and heat production is particularly important in newborns and in animals exposed to cold weather, especially those that hibernate. In contrast, most human adults have little brown fat-less than 1 percent of all fat cells and interspersed among the white fat cells. Animals with abundant amounts of these uncoupling proteins resist weight gain, whereas those with minimal amounts gain weight easily. Similarly, people with a genetic variant of an uncoupling protein have lower metabolic rates and are more overweight than others. Reminder: In coupled reactions, the energy released from the breakdown of one compound is used to create a bond in the formation of another compound.
The predisposition to detect patterns and make connections is what leads to discovery and advance gastritis root word cheap lansoprazole 15 mg mastercard. The problem gastritis loose stools generic lansoprazole 30 mg with mastercard, however gastritis mind map purchase 30 mg lansoprazole overnight delivery, is that the tendency is so strong and so automatic that we sometimes detect coherence even when it does not exist gastritis symptoms blood best buy for lansoprazole. Many of the mechanisms that distort our judgments stem from basic cognitive processes that are usually quite helpful in accurately perceiving and understanding the world. Ignaz Semmelweis detected a pattern in the occurrence of childbed fever among women who were assisted in giving birth by doctors who had just finished a dissection. Charles Darwin saw order in the distribution of different species of finches in the Galapagos, and his insight furthered his thinking about evolution and natural selection. Clearly, the tendency to look for order and to spot patterns is enormously helpful, particularly when we subject whatever hunches it generates to further, more rigorous test (as both Semmelweis and Darwin did, for example). Many times, however, we treat the products of this tendency not as hypotheses, but as established facts. To get a better sense of how our structuring of events can go awry, it is helpful to take a closer look at a specific example. The example comes from the world of sports, but the reader who is not a sports fan need not dismay. The example is easy to follow even if one knows nothing about sports, and the lessons it conveys are quite general. Free I must caution the reader not to construe the sentences above as two distinct quotations, the first a statement about confidence, and the second an anti-imperialist slogan. His statement captures a belief held by nearly everyone who plays or watches the sport of basketball, a belief in a phenomenon known as the "hqtjiand. After making a couple of shots, players are thought to become relaxed, to feel confident, and to "get in a groove" such that subsequent success becomes more likely. In contrast, after missing several shots a player is considered to have "gone cold" and is thought to become tense, hesitant, and less likely to make his next few shots. The belief in the hot hand, then, is really one version of a wider conviction that ". However, there are other areas-gambling games immediately come to mind-where the belief may be just as strongly held, but where the phenomenon simply does not exist. My colleagues and I have conducted a series of studies to answer Cognitive Determinants of Questionable Beliefs Something Out of Nothing this question. We interviewed 100 knowledgeable basketball fans to determine whether this constitutes an appropriate interpretation of what people mean by the hot hand. Their responses indicated that it does: 91% thought that a player has "a better chance of making a shot after having just made his last two or three shots than he does after having just missed his last two or three shots. Contrary to the expectations expressed by our sample of fans, players were not more likely to make a shot after making their last one, two, or three shots than after missing their last one, two, or three shots. In fact, there was a slight tendency for players to shoot better after missing their last shot. They made 51% of their shots after making their previous shot, compared to 54% after missing their previous shot; 50% after making their previous two shots, compared to 53% after missing their previous two; 46% after making three in a row, compared to 56% after missing three in a row. These data flatly contradict the notion that "success breeds success" in basketball and that hits tend to follow hits and misses tend to follow misses. Were there more streaks of, say, 4, 5, or 6 hits in a row than chance would allow? Were there more, for example, than the number of streaks of 4, 5, or 6 heads in a row that one observes when flipping coins? The hot hand exists, the argument goes, it just did not show up in our sample of data. The hot hand may have been masked, in other words, by other phenomena that work in the opposite direction. Our analysis of two seasons of free-throw statistics by the Boston Celtics indicate that the outcomes of consecutive free throws are independent. On average, the players made 75% of their second free throws after making their first, and 75% after missing their first. Still unconvinced, a number of people have tried to salvage their belief in the hot hand by suggesting that perhaps we have not adequately captured what is meant by the term (our initial survey results notwithstanding).
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