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Different stages along the trajectory pose different kinds of challenges for conservation management birth control pills cost cvs purchase levlen 0.15mg with amex. Many species are not confined solely to fragments birth control for mood swings buy discount levlen on line, but also occur in other land uses in modified landscapes birth control pills known to cause blood clots levlen 0.15 mg discount. In Nicaragua birth control pill 93 purchase levlen 0.15mg, for example, riparian forests, secondary forests, forest fallows, live fences, and pastures with dispersed trees each support diverse assemblages of birds, bats, dung beetles and butterflies (Harvey et al. To these species, the landscape represents a mosaic of land uses of differing quality, rather than a contrast between "habitat" and "non-habitat". Recognizing landscapes as mosaics emphasizes the need to appreciate all types of elements in the landscape. This perspective is particularly relevant in regions where cultural habitats, derived from centuries of human land-use, have important conservation values. Different species have different ecological attributes, such as their scale of movement, lifehistory stages, longevity, and what constitutes habitat. These each influence how a species "perceives" a landscape, as well as its ability to survive in a modified landscape. Consequently, the same landscape may be perceived by different taxa as having a different structure and different suitability, and quite differently from the way that humans describe the landscape. A "species-centered" view of a landscape can be obtained by mapping contours of habitat suitability for any given species (Fischer et al. Fragmented landscapes differ in the size and shape of fragments and in their spatial configuration. Most "habitat fragmentation" studies have been undertaken at the fragment level, with individual fragments as the unit of study. However, to draw inferences about the consequences of landscape change and habitat fragmentation, it is necessary to compare "whole" landscapes that differ in their patterns of fragmentation (McGarigal and Cushman 2002). Comparisons of landscapes are also important because: (i) landscapes have properties that differ from those of fragments (Figure 5. Characteristic changes along a time trajectory include: (i) a decline in the total area of fragments; (ii) a decrease in the size of many fragments (large tracts become scarce, small fragments predominate); (iii) increased isolation of fragments from similar habitat; and (iv) the shapes of fragments increasingly become dominated by straight edges compared with the curvilinear boundaries of natural features such as rivers. For small fragments and linear features such as fencerows, roadside vegetation, and riparian strips, the ratio of perimeter length to area is high, resulting in a large proportion of "edge" habitat. An increase in the overall proportion of edge habitat is a highly influential consequence of habitat fragmentation. At the landscape level, a variety of indices have been developed to quantify spatial patterns, but many of these are intercorrelated, especially with the total amount of habitat remaining in the landscape (Fahrig 2003). Several aspects of the spatial configuration of fragments that usefully distinguish between different landscapes include: (i) the degree of subdivision. Landscape change is not random: rather, disproportionate change occurs in certain areas. Clearing of vegetation is more common in flatter areas at lower elevations and on the more-productive soils. Such areas are likely to retain fewer, smaller fragments of original vegetation, whereas larger fragments are more likely to persist in areas less suitable for agricultural or urban development, such as on steep slopes, poorer soils, or regularly inundated floodplains. This has important implications for conservation because sites associated with different soil types and elevations typically support different sets of species. Thus, fragments usually represent a biased sample of the former biota of a region. There also is a strong historical influence on landscape change because many fragments, and the disturbance regimes they experience, are a legacy of past land settlement and land-use (Lunt and Spooner 2005). Land-use history can be an effective predictor of the present distribution of fragments and ecosystem condition within fragments. It is necessary to understand ecological processes and changes in the past in order to manage for the future. The greatest impact on fragments occurs at their boundaries; small remnants and those with complex shapes experience the strongest "edge effects". For example, the microclimate at a forest edge adjacent to cleared land differs from that of the forest interior in attributes such as incident light, humidity, ground and air temperature, and wind speed. Changes to biophysical processes from land use in the surrounding environment, such as the use of fertilizers on farmland, alterations to drainage patterns and water flows, and the presence of exotic plants and animals, also have spill-over effects in fragments. Many native vegetation communities are resistant to invasion by exotic plant species unless they are disturbed.
Moreover birth control pills generic levlen 0.15mg on-line, some responses provided are probed with additional questions developed during the interview birth control early period purchase levlen master card. The Road to Results: Designing and Conducting Effective Development Evaluations 292 In an evaluation of a community-driven development project birth control cost levlen 0.15 mg free shipping, for example birth control pills safe buy 0.15 mg levlen, evaluators might choose a semistructured approach to data collection. Characteristics of Good Measures Evaluators measure beliefs, attitudes, opinions, knowledge, skills, performance, and habits. If data on the measure are collected in the same way from the same source using the same decision rules every time, will the same results be obtained Evaluators should avoid measuring what is easy to measure instead of what is needed. Credible is the term used to indicate how trustworthy or believable the data collected are to the intended audiences of the evaluation report. The opinions of the dropouts themselves or their friends may be viewed as more credible measures. Validity is the term used to indicate whether a measurement actually measures what it is supposed to measure. Waiting lists, for example, have little validity as a measure of demand for certain early childhood education programs, because they are frequently out of date and parents place their children on multiple waiting lists. When children are placed, their names are not necessarily removed from other waiting lists. For example, if an evaluation is measuring physical fitness, the measure of how fast one runs 100 meters may look like one valid measure of physical fitness. If, for example, evaluators are trying to develop a measure of health status, they might consult with health professionals to ensure that the measure selected has a high content validity. A test of knowledge of healthy eating habits may be more valid than the self-report data. It may not be a measure with high validity, however, because a respondent may not apply knowledge of healthy eating habits to his or her own eating. Reliability is the term used to describe the stability of the measurement- the degree to which it measures the same thing, in the same way, in repeated tests. The measurement tools for sporting events, for example, need to be highly reliable. The tape that measures the distance of a jump must measure the distance in the same way every time it is used. If it does not, the measure may be flawed and the results of the event could be questioned. Birth weights of newborn babies are an example of a reliable measure, assuming the scales are calibrated properly. Attendance rates at schools are an example of a measure with low reliability, because they vary depending on when in the school year the measure is taken. Quantitative and Qualitative Data Quantitative data: Data in numerical form Qualitative data: Data in nonnumerical form Data can be classified as quantitative or qualitative. Examples include data on age, cost, length, height, area, volume, weight, speed, time, and temperature. They are data that can be observed, or self-reported, but not necessarily precisely measured. The Road to Results: Designing and Conducting Effective Development Evaluations 294 Consider an evaluation of a microlending program. Quantitative data for this program may include the number of participants, by gender, age, and number of children; income; inventory of product; cost of product; and sales.
Combining the previous model of evaluation with the new one did not allow freedom of management birth control for women how to climax purchase levlen visa, creativity birth control for depression levlen 0.15 mg without prescription, and innovation birth control pills quarterly periods buy levlen 0.15mg otc. Another lesson learned from the French experience is that "enhancing internal management cannot be done without linking it to the internal governance of public sectors" (Trosa 2008 birth control 43701 discount levlen online, p. According to Trosa, the new system does not need to be demolished but rather widened by clearly discussing required purposes while encouraging the logics of action, not merely the use of tools. For an evaluation system to be established and take hold in any country, interested stakeholders and commitments to transparency and good governance are necessary. Demand for and ownership of an evaluation system may be more difficult to establish in developing countries. Difficulties in interministerial cooperation and coordination can impede progress toward strategic planning. Indeed, a lack of sufficient governmental cooperation and coordination can be a factor in both developed and developing countries. To emerge and mature, evaluation systems need political will in the government and champions who are highly placed and willing to assume the political risks of advocating on behalf of evaluation. The presence of a national champion or champions can go a long way in helping a country develop and sustain an evaluation system. Conversely, we know of no instance in which an M&E system has emerged in the public sector of a developing country without a champion. Many developing countries are still struggling to put together strong, effective institutions. Some may require civil service reform or reform of legal and regulatory frameworks. Toward this end, the international development community is trying to improve basic building blocks to support them. The challenge is to build institutions, undertake administrative and civil service reforms, and/or revamp legal and regulatory codes while at the same time establishing evaluation systems. Instituting evaluation systems could help inform and guide the government to undertake needed reforms in all of these areas. Establishing a foundation means having basic statistical systems and data as well as key budgetary systems. Like developed countries, developing countries need to know their baseline conditions-where they currently stand in relation to a given program or policy. Capacity in the workforce is needed to develop, support, and sustain these systems. Officials need to be trained in modern data collection, monitoring methods, and analysis-challenges that can be difficult in many developing countries (Schacter 2002). In response to these challenges, many aid organizations have ramped up their efforts to build institutional capacity. The methods include technical Understanding the Issues Driving Development Evaluation 61 and financial assistance to build statistical systems, training in monitoring and evaluation, diagnostic readiness assessments and results, and performance-based budget systems. The trend toward results-based Country Assistance Strategies may help model practices. Assistance to developing countries in producing country-led poverty reduction strategies may also help build such capacity. As part of the efforts to support local capacity in developing countries, development organizations are also moving to create development networks, such as on-line computer networks and participatory communities that share expertise and information. It can be argued that circumstances in a particular country are unique and that the experience of one country will not necessarily translate to another. But once it is accepted that there is very little generic development knowledge-that all knowledge has to be gathered and then analyzed, modified, disassembled, and recombined to fit local needs-the source is immaterial. The new motto is "Scan globally; reinvent locally" (Fukuda-Parr, Lopes, and Malik, 2002, p. International Program for Development Evaluation Training In 1999, the Independent Evaluation Group of the World Bank conducted a survey to identify training in development evaluation. The core program offers more than eighty instructional hours, complete with tools, case studies, discussion groups, and readings.
They are well positioned to track the loss of species and ecosystems in broad patterns even if precise details are not always available (Chapter 10) birth control pills upon mirena removal crash discount 0.15mg levlen with amex. However applying the science effectively requires the efforts of conservation biologists combined with a diversity of other actors birth control pills 3 month cycle side effects buy genuine levlen on line, most of whom are non-biologists and include local and indigenous communities birth control pills junel cheap 0.15mg levlen, civil servants at all levels of government birth control z pack order levlen 0.15 mg with amex, environmental consultants, park managers, environmental lobbyists, private industry, and even the military (Box 15. This amorphous group of practitioners will pursue a diverse set of activities which include putting up or taking down fences (literal and metaphorical), lobbying politicians, buying land, negotiating with members of local and indigenous communities, tackling invasive species problems, guarding against poachers and managing off-take of plants and animals. Forces affecting biodiversity in different ecosystems have altered over the past two decades. For instance, the nature of tropical forest destruction has changed from 284 being dominated by rural farmers to currently being driven substantially by major industries and economic globalization, with timber operations, oil and gas development, large-scale farming and exotic-tree plantations being the most frequent causes of forest loss (see Chapter 4). Global threats, and opportunities, such as climate change (Chapter 8), are forcing conservation practitioners to work at a variety of scales to better integrate these challenges (Bonan 2008). Conservation science must meet the continually changing nature of threats to biodiversity (Butler and Laurance 2008); conservation biologists and practitioners need to design and leverage solutions in response to these global changes in threat. Not only is the practice of conservation getting more complicated, but it has a stronger global presence, and increasingly large expenditures (Cobb et al. As a result, implementing agencies and specifically conservation organizations are being held to a higher standard in monitoring and evaluating their conservation success, and failure (Wells et al. The impacts are diverse, and the direct impact in reducing wildlife populations is well studied, and often noted (Robinson and Bennett 2000; Bennett 2005). These personnel and affiliates have significant buying power that influences local markets, including the ability to drive the demand for wildlife products. Activities include the development of pocket cards and playing cards for soldiers as well as handouts and power point slides for incorporation into militaryrun environmental training including officer training, predeparture briefings, and intheater briefings. The playing cards will communicate information about wildlife, wildlife products, and legal concerns pertaining to wildlife of Iraq and Afghanistan. In the last ten years the World Bank approved 598 projects that fully or partially supported biodiversity conservation and sustainable use (see Box 15. These are being executed in 122 countries and through 52 multicountry efforts and include activities in almost all terrestrial and coastal habitats, although more than half of all projects are directed towards the conservation of different types of forests. Many of these habitats provide critical ecosystem services and can be an important buffer to climate change, providing lowcost options for adaptation and mitigation actions. The scale and variety of Bank financing mechanisms provide many opportunities to integrate biodiversity concerns into development assistance, to address the root causes of biodiversity loss, and to develop local capacity and interest. As well as being a major funding source for biodiversity projects in developing countries, the Bank is also a source of technical knowledge and expertise, and has the convening power to facilitate participatory dialogue between governments and other relevant stakeholders. The last of these is an important tool by which biodiversity concerns are integrated into improved project design because the policy forbids the Bank supporting projects involving the significant conversion of natural habitats unless there are no feasible alternatives for the project and its sites, and unless comprehensive analysis demonstrates that overall benefits from the project outweigh the environmental costs. Likewise the Bank will not approve a project that would involve the significant conversion or degradation of a gazetted or approved protected area. Mitigation for anticipated project impacts on biodiversity might include conservation offsets or additional species protection. Biodiversity, climate change,and adaptation: nature based solutions from the World Bank portfolio. While there are, clearly, situations in which development can facilitate conservation efforts, it cannot be assumed that economic development will automatically lead to conservation benefits (Redford and Sanderson 2003). As one would expect, the reality is that such relationships are complex, and often locally specific (Upton et al. That parks may actually benefit the rural poor and serve as an attractant with human growth at their boundaries is both an argument for such areas, and flags a concern for their future conservation. The much contested relationship between parks and people will continue to stimulate both better analysis of the reality of such conflict, and provoke the design of innovative approaches for reconciliation between human needs and biodiversity conservation (Sodhi et al.
The goal is to ensure that each graduate student who has successfully completed their advanced clinical training program has all the prerequisites and necessary experience to achieve board eligibility and certification by their governing professional body birth control for 5 years 0.15 mg levlen free shipping. A graduate student is considered full-time if he or she is registered for a minimum of: 9 semester credit hours during a fall or spring semester / 6 semester credit hours in a summer semester A graduate student is considered half-time if he or she is registered for a minimum of: 5 semester credit hours during a fall or spring semester / 3 semester credit hours in a summer semester Graduate students enrolled in a full-time clinical specialty program are considered full-time due to the clinic hours involved in their curriculum in addition to the semester credit hours birth control jolessa cheap levlen 0.15 mg on line. Colleges and schools may impose additional semester credit hour requirements for students holding assistantships or fellowships which exceed the minimum stated above birth control 77070 generic 0.15 mg levlen free shipping. Exceptions to the above criteria are rare birth control pills history order 0.15mg levlen with mastercard, but include students enrolled in academic programs where the combination of hours of academic coursework, work, research, or special studies is sufficient to warrant a classification of full-time. An acceptable draft of a thesis is defined as one that it is complete to the extent that it can be used for the thesis defense examination. This requirement may be different for students in Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, but every effort should be made to complete the Certificate as scheduled. The graduate degree candidate is required to continue in residence at the college to meet the minimum residency requirement for their program. If all requirements are not fulfilled at that time, a one-year extension may be requested by the student and approved through the Department Head/Program Director and the Associate Dean for Research and Graduate Studies. The term of this extension will not exceed one year, and in all cases, seven consecutive calendar years is the maximum time limit for completion of all degree requirements. Graduate credit for course work more than ten calendar years old at the time of the final oral examination may not be used to satisfy degree requirements. Graduation: Degrees or certificates are awarded on the recommendation of the faculty and Dean of the college. The student must be certified as having completed all requirements of the program by the Program Director, the Graduate Education Council, the Office of the Registrar, and the Administrative Council. The college does not automatically award degrees upon completion of scholastic requirements. To be considered for a degree, a student must apply and pay the graduation fee online through Compass. Some programs require the completion of the Master of Science degree before awarding the Certificate. Remember: even if you do not plan to participate in the commencement ceremony, you still must apply online for graduation. There is no ceremony held in the summer or fall semesters, but degrees are awarded in August and December to those who are certified as eligible after the May commencement ceremony. Those names will be listed in the commencement program in May of the next year, as "Students Who Received Certificates/Degrees Since the Last Commencement. You can find more information on continuous enrollment in the Policies and Procedures section of this handbook. Apply to Graduate: Students must apply to graduate and pay fees online via Compass on or before the deadline for each semester. Certificates may be ordered/issued upon completion of all requirements throughout the year. You will receive a notification of the deadline for applying at the start of each semester. Term Spring Semester Summer Semester Fall Semester Graduation Date May August December Apply to Graduate deadline Early February Early June Early September Instructions and deadlines will be sent to students via email and will be posted to the Graduate Studies webpage. Students close to completion should consult with their mentor and program director as to when to apply for graduation. Students who fail to meet requirements for graduation during the term applied for have 30 days from the date on the certificate/diploma to complete requirements and be cleared by the Office of the Registrar to receive the certificate or diploma. If students do not complete requirements within 30 days of the date on the certificate/degree, the certificate/degree will be shredded. Students must be registered for the semester in which the degree is conferred; therefore, they must continue to register until they meet requirements for graduation. Continuous Enrollment Requirements: A student in a graduate degree program requiring a thesis, dissertation, internship, or record of study, who has completed all coursework on his/her degree plans other than 691 (Research), 684 (Internship), or 692 (Professional Study) is required to be in continuous registration until all requirements for the degree have 196 been completed. The continuous registration requirement may be satisfied by registering either In Absentia or In Residence. A student who qualifies for In Absentia registration is required to register each subsequent fall and spring semester for a minimum of one and maximum of four credit hours of 691, 684, 685 or 692. An international student may have additional registration requirements depending on his/her visa status. He/she should consult with the International Student Services website or an International Student Services advisor to obtain current information on these requirements.
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